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FROM RUBBISH TO RICHES, TRASH TO TREASURE

Introduction

Permit me, Mr Vice Chancellor, to begin this Inaugural Lecture with a passage from the Holy Scriptures, and I quote:

Man puts an end to darkness: he searches the farthest recesses………But where can wisdom be found? Where does understanding dwell?………God understands the way to it and He alone knows where it dwells (Job28: 3, 12, 23)

I have no doubt whatsoever in my mind that no successful research, achievement or breakthrough is ever possible without special insight from God or without Him showing the way to it or removing the shroud of darkness and mystery surrounding it. The research work reported in this lecture is, by no means, an exception. To Him who created all, knows all and gives all, be all glory, honour, praise and adoration, forever and ever. Amen! 

A major potential beneficiary of the outcome of what I term ‘The Benin Cellulose Work’ is the pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria. The role of the pharmaceutical industry worldwide is to transform appropriate scientific knowledge and findings into acceptable drug products for the promotion and sustenance of human and animal health. In order to appreciate the potential impact of my work, it is, perhaps, helpful at this stage to provide a picture of the present state of the pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria.

State of the Nigerian Pharmaceutical Industry

A major feature of the pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria and indeed, the whole of tropical Africa is its high dependence on imported inputs.  Both production and quality control facilities including spare parts and consumables are imported. Utility requirements such as standby electric generators, boreholes and steam generating systems are also mostly import-dependent for both equipment and parts.  Even more disturbing is the fact that nearly all raw materials for the industry, especially medicinal ingredients, are imported.  Olukoya (1993) summarized the implication of the above thus: “The sum total of all the above is a very significant increase in the cost of production, and consequently, increased selling prices of these products.  Indeed, about 85% of the cost of production of a typical pharmaceutical product manufactured locally is directly import-related.  The high cost of production is impacting adversely upon the profitability of the business as there is a limit to the increase in selling prices”. 

The number of pharmaceutical manufacturing concerns in the West Africa subregion is around  two hundred, with Nigeria alone accounting for perhaps over 70% of this figure.  The range of finished products include infusions, injectables, oral medicines and topicals.  Among the manufacturers are large subsidiaries of multinational firms, ex-multinational subsidiaries (following divestment), large indigenous companies as well as medium – and small-scale manufacturing firms which are mostly indigenous. The problems facing them seem to cut across national boundaries (within the subregion), as well as the size and ownership structures of the firms.  One of these is the sharp depreciation of the exchange rate of national currencies.  For example, the value of the naira declined over a twenty-year period (1983-2003) to less than 1% of its original value.  There are, of course, various other factors, including government policies (or lack of them) which have compounded the woes of the pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria. The result is that the average pharmaceutical manufacturer is clearly in a worse shape than it was a quarter of a century ago.  One symptom of this is the spate of divestments that took place a few years ago.  Nonetheless, the situation is not irredeemable. 

Phytopharmaceuticals to the Rescue?

Before we proceed to the main focus of this lecture, please permit me, Mr Vice Chancellor, to examine the strategy that has been proposed for the pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria and which, in my opinion, will promote the development and utilization of raw materials originating from local sources, with a view to reversing the declining fortunes of the industry. The main subject of this Inaugural Lecture is encapsulated in this strategy.

All too often, promising local research at the university level is either prematurely abandoned or aborted. Of the hundreds of local materials, mostly of herbal origin, that have been scientifically investigated as probable active raw material candidates for the pharmaceutical industry, at best only a handful may have reached the developmental and/or clinical trial stages. In fact, to the best of my knowledge, hardly any has achieved the status of a marketable industrial product in Nigeria. 

A herbal medicine or `botanical product’ as is also called in United States, has been defined as one that contains ingredients of vegetable matter or its constituents as a finished product and may include whole plant parts, or other plant material (Brevoort 1996). Elsewhere and also in Nigeria, they have been referred to as phytomedicines or phytopharmaceuticals. Shortly before the middle of the last century, as science and technology began to advance rapidly, preference was increasingly given to the development of homogenous, purified chemicals over the complex mixtures found in most plants. Reversal of this trend will have significant impact on research and development of phytomedicines in Nigeria. With the United States Food & drug Administration (FDA) adopting less stringent requirements for approval, e.g., consideration of multi-ingredient herbal preparation as a single IND (investigational new drug) rather than requiring the demonstration of the contribution to efficacy for each ingredient, it is also expected that regulatory authorities in Nigeria will relax requirements for licensing/registration of herbal products in order to facilitate the modernization and introduction of approved herbal redemies into the market via regulated production on a commercial scale. This will almost certainly be a significant boost to the local pharmaceutical industry since the therapeutic materials would mostly be obtained from local sources. Happily, the World Heath Organsation (WHO) has also begun to actively promote the use of herbal products. 

In recent years, certain definite changes in attitudes towards herbal medicines have begun to take place in advanced countries. Let’s take the trend in the United States as an example. The United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) was in its early years mostly a listing of herbs, accounting for 67% in 1820 and 75% in 1880. Presently, herbal medicines account for probably less than 1%. They were removed over time not because of safety concerns but because they came into disuse in the first half of last century. The USP is now considering re-listing several herbal preparations, as the herbal medicine market has begun to enjoy rapid growth, hitting the US$1.7 billion mark in 1994 (Mellanby 1996). The American Herbal Products Association is putting together an American Herbal Pharmacopoeia.  

Lack of advanced analytical facilities has often hindered research into phytopharmaceuticals in Nigeria, especially chemical identification and characterization of the active constituents of the herbal preparations. The procedures, as well as pharmacological evaluation, are not only very expensive but time – consuming. These factors explain why, after several decades of research, no significant commercial breakthrough in this area has been achieved. Discovery and development of a new drug entity right through clinical trials and approval by regulatory authorities to the market take, on the average, 12 years  and cost up to US $500 million (IFPMA 2003). Thus the obstacles faced by new drug researchers in this part of the world are formidable especially when one takes into account the fact that the pharmaceutical industry consists of multinational subsidiaries which usually do not budget for meaningful research and development (R&D), and indigenous manufacturers whose vision often do not extend beyond producing and selling. There is no doubt that this has dampened the enthusiasm of several bright researchers and left many utterly frustrated. 

Nevertheless, some local researchers have begun to investigate the formulation of medicinal plant parts or the crude plant drug into dosage forms. In 1988, Prof. Iwu and his co-workers presented data to show that the antisickling preparation obtained form Cajanus cajam (L) spreng can be formulated into satisfactory oral tablets (Atueyi 1988).  More recent reports have demonstrated the production of tablets from dried powdered leaf of Cassia podocarpa for use as laxative (Elujoba et al 1994a); the formulation of Datura metel tablets from  the powdered leaf (Femi-Oyewo et al 1994a, b) and the standardization of the herbal drug Schumanniophyton magnificum (Osibogun et al 1994). 

Clinical evidence suggests that, in some cases, phytomedicines are more effective than monotherapies as exemplified when the traditional Chinese herb, Zemaphyte^TM, was used in the treatment of severe steroid -  resistant atopic eczema. Adverse effects were mild, reversible and treatment-related (Hoffman & Leaders 1996). 

Diverse Research Efforts

Mr Vice Chancellor, my research endeavours are fairly diverse, and the results emanating from them, to put it modestly, have been significant. Addressing all of them here will definitely make this lecture unwieldy. I have chosen, therefore, to provide highlights now but dwell in a little more detail later on the particular one that has attracted the loudest attention. 

Pharmaceutical Polymeric Film Coatings. Tablets are usually coated to provide protection against physical hazards and degradation of the drug content by atmospheric moisture and gases, and also to modify the release of the drug when swallowed. In the 1970s, there was a shift from sugar coating which is bulky, cumbersome, costly and time-consuming to thin polymeric film coatings. However, the latter was based on organic solvents which are toxic and liable to cause environmental pollution. My work involved in-depth studies of the interactions in polymeric film coatings with a view to developing suitable water-based polymeric systems to replace those based on organic solvents (Okhamafe & Ihaza 1994, Okhamafe & Igbinadolor 1994, Okhamafe 1990,  Okhamafe & Iwebor 1987, Okhamafe & York, 1989, 1988, 1987a,b, 1985a,b, Okhamafe & York 1984/85). Some of the works, especially those employing thermal analysis techniques, were so ground-breaking that an editor of a foremost international pharmaceutical journal admitted that it was difficult finding reviewers for our manuscripts. These works, no doubt, facilitated, in part, the move from organic solvent-based tablet coatings to those based on water by the pharmaceutical industry worldwide in the 1990s.

Pharmacokinetics of fluoroquinolones. My work in this area arose largely from specially commissioned studies from 1987-1994 by subsidiaries of two multinational pharmaceutical giants at the time, Hoechst (now Nigerian-German Chemicals Plc) and Merck, Sharpe Dohme (later Associated Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd) as part of their clinical trials on their brands of fluoroquinolones used for treating severe bacterial infections. Our findings provided a picture of how some local diets and commonly used tropical medicines can  affect the amount of the drug that enters body tissues and fluids when administered through the mouth (Ig-Izevbekhai et al 1997, Okhamafe & Akerele 1994, Akerele & Okhamafe 1991,1998, Okhamafe et al 1991). Furthermore, the results confirmed that the saliva content of the drugs could be used to monitor the drug levels in blood thus obviating the need to subject patients to frequent blood sampling (Okhamafe & Akerele 1989). We also successfully formulated one of the fluoroquinolines in a suppository/rectal dosage form for administration via the anus for very sick and/or elderly patients who are unable to swallow (Okhamafe et al 1996).

Controlled Oral Drug Delivery & Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. Controlled Drug Delivery attracted my interest partly because of its potential impact on minimizing preventable childhood diseases. My on-going research efforts are focused on designing suitable means for administering vaccines through the mouth rather than by injection which is painful and sometimes fraught with complications. Closely related to this is my work on the design of highly modulated membranes that could be employed to encapsulate bacterial and mammalian cells used in biotechnology to produce therapeutic products such as human insulin for diabetics. Some of our works in these areas (Okhamafe et al 1996, Polk et al 1994, Okhamafe et al 1991,1992) have gained such international attention that I was invited by two major science publishers, CRC Press Inc., Florida, USA, and Birkhauser Boston, USA, respectively in the last decade to contribute chapters to books which have now been published (Okhamafe & Goosen 1998, 1993).

The Cellulose Work

Background

I have increasingly become more conscious and appreciative of God’s moving hand in my life. However, in retrospect, I can also identify certain predisposing factors and circumstances in regard to this cellulose work. About a quarter of a century ago, at the beginning of my final undergraduate year as a pharmacy student at the University of Benin, I commenced my BPharm dissertation project which essentially involved laboratory investigations of the gummy exudate of the bark of a local plant by the botanical name, Albizia ferruginea, as a binding agent in tablets.  My supervisor then was Dr Bona Obiorah, now a retired professor and one-time Deputy Vice Chancellor (Administration) of this university.  An expert in powder and tablet technology, I thoroughly cherished the great latitude he gave me to initiate and to explore.  This small research experience certainly was a motivating factor in my choice of an academic career, a step that was rare then and still is today among those in the pharmacy profession.  At the University of Bradford, United Kingdom, where from 1981 to 1984 I pursued advanced studies culminating in a PhD degree in pharmaceutical technology, I was again privileged to work under an amiable, young and dynamic supervisor, Dr Peter York, who has since become a professor in the same university.  The focus of my doctoral thesis was the physicochemical characterization of cellulosic film coatings for use in aqueous-based tablet coating processes.  The tremendous insight into cellulosic polymers that I acquired during the period, especially their intrinsic and interaction phenomena, greatly stimulated my interest in the parent or original polymer itself, cellulose, particularly its varieties and versatility.

On my return to Nigeria in 1984, specifically to the University of Benin from where I had obtained training leave to pursue doctoral studies, I initiated a research programme that was designed to consolidate the bridge between the plant sciences and the pharmaceutical sciences.  A major influence was the fact that cellulose is the most abundant chemical of plant origin and that a greater part of southern Nigeria, where I have spent most of life-time, falls within the equatorial rain forest zone which is replete with a variety of agricultural and non- agricultural plant species. 

At creation, the Bible records as follows in Gen 1:29: ‘Then God said, “I give you every seed-bearing plant on the face of the whole earth and every tree that has fruit with seed in it. They will be yours for food” ’. Plants, therefore, constitute a precious and immeasurable gift from God but it is also one of the most under-used, misused and abused gift.  Furthermore, it is believed that perhaps hundreds of plant species remain undiscovered by man especially in the equatorial rainforest zone of West Africa and Brazil’s Amazon Basin.  As a result, a question that crossed my mind again and again prior to the commencement of the cellulose research work was, ‘How can the immense cellulosic resources in the environment be harnessed for the improved socio-economic well-being of rural dwellers (a vast majority of whom are farmers/agricultural workers) as well as for enhanced national development?’ In response to this question, I initiated a research and development programme in 1985 on the extraction of cellulose from wastes generated from the processing of certain farm products. I was fully conscious of the fact that several materials used in the manufacture of various medicinal products are either cellulose or cellulose-based.  Apart from socio-economic considerations, two other factors also influenced my research thrust.  First, there was the need to maximize the benefits of agricultural production through the utilization of what, otherwise, were usually considered nuisance wastes.  Second, effective and profitable utilization of these wastes would have a positive impact on the environment, especially in the urban areas where local authorities are often unable to cope with the refuse generated from public consumption of farm products such as maize, groundnut, rice and sugar cane.  For example, during my national youth service in Bauchi in 1979/80, I was amazed by the enormous sugar cane fibre wastes that littered the major streets of the city.  On occasional visits to Ekpoma in Edo State in the mid-1980s, I often observed huge heaps of rice husks near rice de-husking mills which could not readily be disposed of even by burning.  In Benin City, I observed  that a significant proportion of the rubbish removed from the drains along major streets was maize cobs left behind by sellers and consumers  of roasted/cooked maize.  Blocked drains are a major cause of flooding and consequently damage to major roads in Benin City. 

Interestingly, semi-processing of various agricultural crops in Africa generates probably as much as 300 million tons of agricultural wastes annually.  Perhaps, up to half of these wastes are potential low-cost sources of cellulose (containing as much as 50% of this compound) but no known attempt has been made at a commercial level to harness these vast but grossly neglected resources to achieve socio-economic benefits for the peoples of the region.  For example, the quantity of maize cob, groundnut shell, rice husk and bagasse (sugar cane fibres) generated annually in Africa is estimated to total over 12 million metric tons.  As Table 1 shows, over 3 million metric tons of these four  

Table 1:  Some agricultural commodities and estimated wastes generated in Nigeria in 2001 (Data source for agricultural commodities: Statistical Bulletin Vol.12: Real sector Statistics, released by Research Department, Central Bank of Nigeria on December 30, 2002). 

                        *Estimate 

wastes may have been generated in Nigeria in 2001.  Based on findings from this work, a cellulose yield of up to 33% is realizable from these materials, which translates to a theoretical annual production of 1 million metric tons of cellulose for the four wastes, if full-scale commercial extraction of cellulose were to be embarked on in this country. 

Innovation and Adaptation

Cellulose is, undoubtedly, the world’s most plentiful phytochemical compound.  Furthermore, its applications cut across several industries including pharmaceutical, chemical, packaging and electrical component.  In the developed world, it is usually derived from special plantation wood and is, therefore, expensive.  Elcema® (powdered cellulose) and Avicel® (microcrystalline cellulose) are typical examples of cellulose produced overseas. Although these two commercial products are invaluable aids in the manufacture of many drug products, they are, nonetheless, expensive and not widely affordable. 

My work commenced with the preliminary evaluation of the cellulosic potentials of cocoa shells and coconut fibres.  The results were not very promising as the cellulose contents of these materials were rather low (Okhamafe & Omoshe 1987).  Subsequent studies showed that in terms of cellulose yield and ease of extractability, maize cob, groundnut shell, rice husk and bagasse (sugar cane fibres) were the most promising of the agricultural wastes available in our local environment.  Most of the studies were, therefore, concentrated on these four wastes.  

The first challenge was to devise a suitable method for the extraction of cellulose from the wastes. Some methods of extracting cellulose from plants have been reported in the literature but they vary according to the plant type due to differences in physical structure and chemical composition.  Commercial cellulose products from the Western world are very expensive because they are obtained from specially cultivated forest wood and probably also as a result of high production costs.  For a developing nation, it is desirable that the production method should be low-cost, devoid of unduly complicated procedures, entail minimal use of resources and be easily scalable to achieve industrial production.  With collaborative support from a polymer chemist, Dr. Ejike (then of the Chemistry Department, University of Benin) during the early stages of the work, and later for a while from Dr. Igboechi, a phytochemist then in the Pharmacognosy Department, University of Benin), we were, over the years, able to develop a simple, ingenious, low-cost and commercially viable technique of generating high quality cellulose from maize cob and bagasse. 

The various cellulose products obtained have been carefully, systematically and thoroughly studied over the years with varying levels of laboratory support from research  assistant, as well as undergraduate and postgraduate students that were engaged on the project at different times.  The results, which include comparison with internationally known commercial celluloses, are outstanding and have been published in various learned journals and presented at various conferences and workshops. For example, the celluloses obtained have been demonstrated to exhibit, among others, the following qualities:  

ü      Excellent tablet disintegrant properties even when compared with a standard disintegrant such as maize starch (Okhamafe et al 1988, 1989, 1992, 1995)..  Disintegrants (or disintegrating agents) are incorporated in tablets to facilitate their break-up into particles in the stomach within 15 minutes so that the drug can be rapidly released for absorption into the blood stream. It is thus a good distegrating agent.

ü      Good physicochemical characteristics with pronounced binding, swelling and lubricant properties (Okhamafe et al 1990, 1991).

ü      Excellent diluent properties. A pharmaceutically acceptable conventional tablet should be sufficiently hard to withstand breakage during handling and transportation, be free of physical defects, be glossy, and disintegrate in the stomach within 15 minutes when swallowed. To achieve this in the manufacturing industry, at least 3 other non-active ingredients are usually incorporated in the tablet. The celluloses have proved to be very useful in the production of tablets by direct compression without the need to add any other ingredient to facilitate the production of good quality tablets. Only very few pharmaceutical materials have been found to possess this property. The paracetamol tablets produced with the celluloses by direct compression  demonstrated (Okhamafe & Azubuike 1993, 1994):

-     excellent hardness 

 -     absence of physical defects

                        -     self-lubrication (no lubricant needed)

                       -     rapid self-disintegration (disintegrant not required)

            -     facilitated high in vitro drug availability

           -     high compressibility

     Similar results were recently obtained with other drugs (Azubuike & Okhamafe 2003)

ü      Substantial reduction in the cost of tablets made with the cellulose since no other additive is required unlike current formulations which contain at least three other additives (Okhamafe & Azubuike 1994).  Thus, by simply blending pure paracetamol powder with a small proportion of the cellulose, for example, and compressing directly, i.e., without wet granulation, excellent tablets that easily satisfy pharmacopoeial  requirements can be obtained.

ü      Simplified tablet manufacture as a result of the direct compression method used, thus also minimizing space as well as equipment and production costs (Okhamafe & Azubuike 1993, 1994).

ü      Capable of inducing sustained/controlled release of drugs from tablets when combined with other pharmaceutical aids (Okor, Iwu-Anyanwu & Okhamafe 1992). As a result, it is possible to reduce the number of times a tablet needs to be taken from, say, three or four times a day to just once daily without diminishing therapeutic efficacy.

ü      Pharmaceutical grade quality.  British Pharmacopoeia standards have been  met.

ü      Low cost.  As a result of the method of extraction and taking into account the fact that they are extracted from agricultural wastes, they are considerably less expensive than imported pharmaceutical grade cellulose (Okhamafe & Azubuike 1994).

ü      Good yield. Cellulose extracted from maize cob is approximately 33% of the agricultural waste (Okhamafe et al 2003).

ü      Good microbiological and toxicological profile which indicates that it is very safe for consumption (Okhamafe et al 2003).

Industrial Actualisation Of Research Findings – From Laboratory To Industry

It is well known that most scientific research works, especially in Africa, do not go beyond the laboratory stage.  This work is one of the few exceptions. In 1991, the National Science and Technology Fund, an agency of the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology which is now defunct, provided a grant for preliminary pilot scale studies. By 1993, a scale-up of cellulose extraction to meet industrial requirements had been simulated.  Right from the onset, my ultimate objective was to achieve industrial actualization of the research results. 

                              The UNESCO UNISPAR Grant

A great opportunity for realizing the above objective came in 1994 when UNESCO instituted the University – Industry Science Partnership (UNISPAR) programme to, among others, facilitate collaboration between university researchers and industry for the purpose of translating research results from universities into marketable industrial products. UNESCO received proposals from over 130 scientists across Africa.  Significantly, this work was one of the 17 proposals shortlisted for presentation at the 1^st UNESCO UNISPAR  Conference in Arusha, Tanzania in December 1994.  The conference drew several participants from across the world including industrialists, businessmen, representatives of governments and science & technology institutions, and the World Bank.  The  conference/research fair was chaired by the Deputy Director General (Science Sector) of UNESCO. A major condition for securing UNESCO support for any proposal was that it should be backed by a private sector partner committed to commercializing the results. Biode Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, Ojota, Lagos was the industrial partner of this cellulose proposal and its then Deputy Managing Director, Pharm. (Barr) Godwin E Ovbiagele, also participated actively at the conference. Sequel to the conference, 9 proposals were accepted by UNESCO, and my cellulose proposal received a seed grant of U.S. $20,000.00. This was the largest amount awarded for any of the proposals. As directed by UNESCO, the funds were used to train personnel and seek the approval of regulatory authorities, viz, National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) for product registration, and the patent office for patent rights. 

                              ECOWAS Prize for Excellence

Another major recognition for the cellulose work came in 1997 when I was named the co-winner (with a Senegalese) of the !st ECOWAS Prize for Excellence in African Pharmacopoeia. The prize was presented by the then ECOWAS Chairman at the ECOWAS Summit of Heads of State at Abuja in August 1997. 

Truly Indigenous Technology

The beauty and uniqueness of this work is that right from research to ultimate industrial implementation, the work has been and will remain 100% indigenous in concept, design and personnel.  The design of the equipment for a pilot cellulose plant was executed in collaboration with experienced Nigerian industrial engineers.  The machinery to be used in the proposed pilot plant will also be fabricated locally. 

Patent and NAFDAC Approval

A patent no. RP.12434 of the Federal Republic of Nigeria was granted in 1996 for the concept, scientific processes and applications emanating from the cellulose work. Furthermore, a product registration application dossier along with product samples were forwarded to NAFDAC in 1996.  After careful evaluation, NAFDAC gave tacit approval, explaining that no formal approval for drug excipients is required.  It, however,  pledged to assist, while the plant is being built, to ensure that regulatory requirements are met. 

Potential Socio-Economic and Environmental Benefits of the Work

Pharmaceutical Application. More than 70% of all medicines are administered as solid dosage forms (i.e., powders, tablets, granules/pellets, and capsules), and practically all of them (and indeed most drug products) contain in addition to the medicinal principle, inert non-therapeutic components known as aids, excipients or adjuvants.  Excipients facilitate drug manufacture and, in fact, are usually indispensable in the formulation of a satisfactory drug product.  In some cases, these aids constitute 75% or more of the finished product.  Sadly, however, most of the excipients used in drug production in Africa today are imported into the continent.  Pharmaceutical manufacturers in many African countries are increasingly unable to meet their imported raw material needs due to foreign exchange constraints.  Partly as a result of this, capacity utilization in Nigeria’s pharmaceutical industry remains below 50%. 

Efforts by manufacturers to source certain raw materials (such as starches) locally have exacerbated the food  shortage situation in Nigeria and raised some moral as well as socio-economic questions.  Furthermore, competing demands for starches from other industries such as food, textiles, and packaging, together with the grossly inadequate production of starchy crops such as rice, cassava, maize and yam in the country, has resulted in a supply situation that falls far short of the nation’s food and industrial raw material requirements. Consequently, development of alternative excipients, such as this cellulose, from local sources is not only expedient but should also serve to ameliorate the hunger situation in Africa as well as reduce the overwhelming import-dependence of the pharmaceutical industry.

Application in other Industries. Cellulose is a laboratory chemical but more importantly, it serves as a base material in the chemical industry for the production of numerous derivatives with diverse applications that cut across several industries.  For example, ethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate phthalate and hydroxypropyl cellulose are employed in drug coating and the fabrication of novel/sophisticated drug products; cellulose acetate is a useful membrane filter for the preparation of sterile solutions; and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is used as an adhesive in the packaging industry and as an additive in the food/bakery industry. 

Span

The crops from which the agricultural wastes are generated are cultivated across the African region.  Furthermore, wastes from other crops such as sorghum are also potentially useful sources of cellulose.  Thus the planned cellulose plant can easily be replicated in other parts of Africa. 

Resources and Sustainability Impact

This cellulose work can be aptly tagged a ‘waste-to-wealth’, ‘rubbish-to-riches’ or ‘trash to treasure’ project since it seeks to turn ‘useless’ materials to valuable, marketable products.  Nearly all the raw materials (the bulk of which are agricultural wastes) for the project are freely and locally available, and will remain so as long as there is agricultural production.  Therefore, the major raw material resource base for commercial cellulose production is practically inexhaustible.  Only a few reagents will need to be imported.  As stated earlier, the engineering expertise and capacity for the fabrication of the machinery and other facilities for a viable cellulose plant are entirely indigenous. 

Rural and other small-holder farmers, a majority of whom are women, will be major beneficiaries as a result of additional income accruing from the sale of agricultural wastes which presently have no economic value.  Furthermore, youths are expected to constitute the majority of those working in a commercial cellulose factory. Clearly both agriculture and industry will receive a boost. 

Environment-friendly

Commercial cellulose production will enhance rather than degrade the environment.  Most of the waste products of the cellulose extraction process are solubilised lignins and degraded biomolecules which are biocompatible with and/or biodegradable in the environment. Neither heavy metals nor other dangerous liquid or gaseous chemicals are involved in the production process.  In fact, as indicated earlier, large-scale application of this technology will have a potentially favourable impact on the physical environment, especially in urban areas.  For example, up to 50% of the volume of refuse generated in Benin City during the maize harvesting season is maize cob.  Thus, commercialized cellulose production will significantly facilitate waste/refuse disposal and management.   

Multiplier Effect on Science

Commercialisation of cellulose production and the resultant availability of cellulose at very low cost and in large quantities will not only facilitate the establishment of chemical plants utilizing cellulose to produce its numerous derivatives but should also stimulate research activities in applications of cellulose and its derivatives.  For example, there was a local report a few years ago of the use of cellulose in the manufacture of electrodes.  

Industrial Actualization - So far, So Difficult

The road to establishing a production plant that will transform the results of this cellulose work to marketable products has been a tortuous one with several setbacks. All along, hopes have been raised and then dashed. Even now, we are yet to achieve our objective. 

Historically, both subsidiaries of multinational pharmaceutical manufacturers and their indigenous counterparts have been mere production outfits that lack the R&D culture and the long-range vision required to stimulate interest in harnessing research results to foster improved production. Prior to the UNESCO UNISPAR programme, the firms I approached showed no interest in commercializing the cellulose results. With Biode Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd (BPIL) Lagos coming on board under UNESCO’s UNISPAR programme, civil works at the site of the pilot plant (located in the firm’s main factory premises) commenced in 1996, and by mid–1997, the building to house the plant had been roofed. These efforts were entirely funded by Biode. A major crisis which rocked the company in 1997, the details of which I am not willing to go into, has grounded the project since then. 

In our determination to ensure that the dream did not die, we explored various options including the UNDP–assisted Edo State Government small–scale industries scheme as well as Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC) assistance. The idea of securing a bank loan to set up a cellulose factory was considered but not pursued due to high interest rates, and the unstable political and economic climate. Years of military misrule with its attendant political instability greatly hampered investment in manufacturing. At the same time, capital flight assumed alarming proportions. Appropriate government–owned financial institutions such as the Nigerian Industrial Development Bank (NIDB) and the National Economic Recovery Fund (NERFUND) that could have provided soft loans were incapacitated. 

However, in the last one year, RMRDC has showed renewed interest and this time the prospects are very good. A proposal to set up a N11 million demonstration pilot cellulose plant here on this campus in 2004 is actively being considered by this agency.  

Pertinent Recommendations 

Having highlighted what has been done, what has gone wrong, what is lacking and what can be achieved, I should now be in a position to advance certain recommendations which, I believe, would enhance local sourcing of pharmaceutical raw materials as well as translation of research results into marketable drug products. I itemise them as follows:

·        Compilation of information and data on locally available raw materials with pharmaceutical potentials should be undertaken as a matter of urgency. Several of these materials have been investigated but information on traditional herbal remedies which have not yet been the subject of any scientific investigation should also be included in the compilation. It is a known fact that ideas and knowledge derive from information availability. A national organization such as Nigeria’s NIPRD should coordinate the compilation and maintenance of a computerized database which can be accessed by academic and industrial researchers via E-mail and Internet. The database should be regularly updated, and funding for this project could be jointly provided by government and industry.

·        Systematic screening of herbal medicinal materials to ascertain their pharmacological and toxicological profiles as well as commercial viability. China began to adopt this approach over 40 years ago (Liu 1995, Chen et al 1993) and so have Hungary (Neumayer & Bernath 1993) and United Arab Emirates (Tanira et al 1993). Funding for this should come from interested firms and research grant awarding agencies.

·        For over two decades now, the pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria has been waiting for the Federal Government to set up a petrochemical plant whose output will provide the base materials for the production of synthetic active ingredients. It is no longer realistic to expect the government to fulfill its promise in the foreseeable future, and even if she does, the experience with government – owned petroleum refineries is not encouraging. Individual firms or a consortium of firms with or without foreign investors should execute this project.

·        While R&D work on the isolation and purification of active components of medicinal plants should continue, there should now be more emphasis on the formulation of established herbal remedies (plant parts, crude extracts, etc.) into modern oral dosage forms provided therapeutic efficacy and safety standards are met.  This requires the cooperation of industry, university researchers and NAFDAC.  The regulatory agencies will particularly be required to relax product registration/licensing requirements as is already the case in advanced countries.  An American expert in phytomedicines made the following forecast as the last century drew to a close (Mellanby 1996): “I am very optimistic that in the 21^st century, we will have herbal pharmaceutical companies where they won’t extract and purify a single component as they do today – instead they will provide a symphony orchestra instead of a piano concerto”.

·        Individual firms should embark on bold initiatives in R&D. They are advised not only to set up active R&D divisions in their firms with clear focus and set objectives, but also initiate well-funded collaborative research programmes with researchers in academia. Nemeith International Pharmaceutical Plc, Lagos made a  move in this direction in the mid-1990s with an invitation to university researchers to submit proposals on research results for funding and commercialization. I hope other Nigerian firms will follow suit. Government, on its part, should encourage firms to spend more on R&D through tax incentives.  Reports from overseas clearly show that the greater the spending on R&D, the higher the profitability.  In 1997, researched-based pharmaceutical companies in the U.S. spent about U.S.$18.9 billion on R&D compared with U.S. $618.5 million in 1970 – a 30-fold increase (Gaulis 1997).  Furthermore, over a period of twenty years, the proportion of company revenues going to R&D nearly doubled from 11.1% in 1977 to approximately 21.2% in 1997. 

      In Britain, R&D expenditure rose dramatically from £42 million in 1972 to a whopping £3.07 billion in 2001 – over 70–fold increase - while R&D, as a percentage of pharmaceutical R&D output, also increased from 7% to approx: 24% (ABPI 2003). In Table 2, you will observe that two multinational firms, Roche and GlaxoSmithKline, spent US$2.90 billion and 4.04 billion, respectively, on R&D in 2001 (Roche 2003, GSK 2003). This corresponds to 13.3% and 12.5%, respectively, of their sales. The primacy increasingly placed on pharmaceutical R&D can be seen in Table 3. A comparison of the pharmaceutical industry with other industry sectors indicates that pharmaceutical  R&D as percent of sales is by far the highest (34.2%) with Aerospace R&D a distant second with 8.0% (ABPI 2003). Furthermore, while R&D for other industry sectors as a percentage of sales have remained largely unchanged since 1986, that for pharmaceutical R&D rose from 11.8% to 34.2% in 1998.  This is not surprising because human health remains a topmost priority worldwide. Furthermore, there are still several diseases plaguing man, such as cancer, diabetes, hypertension, HIV/AIDS, Ebola fever, etc for which there are no satisfactory therapies. In fact, the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that there is still no adequate treatment for about 75% of the 2,500 ailments that afflict man today (IFPMA 2003). 

            *Percent of Sales

 Table 3:  R&D as a Percentage of Sales in some UK Manufacturing Industry Sectors

•  There should be a tripartite cooperative relationship between the organized industrial sector, academia and  government with a view to identifying the problems and needs of the pharmaceutical industry as well as formulating/reviewing policies. In this relationship, government should act as a catalyst or a ‘priest’ to ‘marry’ industry and university researchers especially with regard to projects of great importance to the national economy.  A research fair to showcase recent advances in pharmaceutical R&D should be held every other year.

·        There should be a tripartite cooperative relationship between the organized industrial sector, academia and government with a view to identifying the problems and needs of the pharmaceutical industry as well as formulating/reviewing policies. In this relationship, government should act as a catalyst or a ‘priest’ to ‘marry’ industry and university researchers especially with regard to projects of great importance to the national economy.  A research fair to showcase recent advances in pharmaceutical R&D should be held every other year.

·        The trend worldwide in science and technology research  is multidisciplinary. Local pharmaceutical researchers have to imbible this approach as it produces results better, faster and cheaper. It means that they must work not only with collaborators in other pharmaceutical fields but also with chemists, physiologists, medical doctors, geologists, botanists, engineers, biochemists, mathematicians, etc, depending on the research problem.

• While salaries of academics have improved significantly in recent years, more still need to be done to make the salaries competitive enough to consistently attract the best young brains to pursue a career in academia. Research and library facilities should be upgraded and brought up to date. E-mail and Internet facilities should be made easily accessible to researchers while adequate back-up electricity and water facilities should be in place.

Conclusion

Appreciation

Indeed, God has taken me this far! Consequently, I must necessarily ascribe all the glory and honour to Him; for if He had not enabled it, I would not have been led by His mysterious hand to embark on this work that has brought me international recognition. If He had not enabled it, the insight and provision that made the breakthrough possible would have eluded me. If he had not enabled it, this work would have gone unacknowledged, unrecognized and unrewarded. If He had not enabled it, I would not have been nominated (just a few weeks to the deadline) for the ECOWAS Prize I had not heard of before then. I can go on and on reeling out God’s `enablement’ in this matter but I would rather simply say, ‘Thank you, my Heavenly Father, thank you my Lord Jesus, and thank you, my dear Holy Spirit’ for all that you have done and continue to do in my life.  

Various individuals and organizations have also played important roles at one time or the other since the cellulose work commenced in 1985. I gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dr. EN Ejike, Dr. AC Igboechi, and Mr. Solomon Aigbavboa who, at different times, were research associates on the project. I also appreciate the invaluable inputs of several of my present and former students (both undergraduate and postgraduate), especially Pharm. Emeka Azubuike, who worked/are working on some aspects of the project. My special gratitude goes to the University of Benin, my employer, who not only provided the initial research grant but continues to provide the facilities and the appropriate environment for the work. Of special mention are past and present Vice Chancellors, especially Professor AG Onokerhoraye and the incumbent, Professor AR Anao, who provided both financial support and encouragement for various activities relating to this work. A large grant provided by the Nigeria’s National Science & Technology Fund (now subsumed within the National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure) (NASENI) greatly helped to lift the work to a new height, including scale-up studies, and for this I am deeply thankful. But for a UNISPAR grant from UNESCO, this work would probably not have reached the industrial actualisation stage. UNESCO certainly deserves much credit for this and for their continuing follow-up activities on the work.  

I wish also to acknowledge the efforts of Biode Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, Lagos, in particular, the Chairman/Managing Director, Mr.Kayode Fashina, and the then Deputy Managing Director, Mr. Godwin Ovbiagele, who is now Chairman, Edo Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Benin City. It is unfortunate that in spite of their substantial investment in the establishment of a pilot cellulose plant in their factory premises, and the energetic and partnering efforts of the latter, the project was not completed due to circumstances mostly beyond their control.  

I cannot find enough words to express my indebtedness to my family: first to my very dear wife who is also my closest friend and companion. She remains ever so hardworking, caring, loving, understanding and patient; also to my three lovely sons, Ikhide, Enahoro and Omogbai who are always so supportive. They are indeed precious gifts to us by God. Without their assistance, cooperation as well as the peace and joy engendered in the home, this achievement would probably have eluded me. My parents merit a special ‘thank you’ (a posthumous one for my late father) for their love and enormous personal sacrifice for me. My late father’s high premium on good education and academic excellence greatly influenced the course of my life. I will continue to cherish the influence of my brethren in the Catholic Charismatic Renewal (CCR). Without doubt, the CCR has provided me a spiritual platform with which God has transformed my life and greatly influenced the course of this work. Praise the Lord! My colleagues, other staff, and students of the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, as well as the Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria, Edo State Branch, also deserve a mention for their cooperation, suggestions and recognition. I am especially grateful to Mr. Peter Edokhume of the Drug Manufacturing Laboratory of the Faculty of Pharmacy  for full technical support. I am appreciative also of the assistance of the staff of Information & Communication Technology Unit (Vice Chancellor’s Office), University of Benin, particularly, Ms Mary Osharode  who helped with the typesetting.  

My profuse gratitude goes to the erstwhile Executive Secretary of the West African Pharmaceutical Federation, but now of the University of Jos, Professor EN Sokomba, who, finding the cellulose work of great merit, nominated me for the ECOWAS Prize for Excellence. A big ‘thank you’ goes to the ECOWAS Secretariat and all the governments of the West African subregion not only for the very wise decision to institute the prize but also for accepting my cellulose work as good enough to receive the ECOWAS Prize. Finally, but certainly not the least, I am grateful to the Inaugural Lectures Committee headed by the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic), Professor AI Imogie,  for organizing this lecture, and also to all those who clearly deserve a mention but have not been so recognized, and that includes everyone present here, as well as my numerous well-wishers, especially those who have always prayed for me.  

Thank you very much for your attention and God bless!   

References  

ABPI (2003). Through: Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI) website: http://www.abpi.org.uk 

Akerele, J.O., Okhamafe, A.O.(1991). Influence of Oral Co-administered Metallic Drugs on Ofloxacin Pharmacokinetics. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 28: 87-94.  

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Azubuike CPC, Okhamafe AO (2003). Further studies on the direct compression characteristics of drugs containing maize cob cellulose (Manuscript in preparation)

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Chen YJ, Du YL, Gu LH, Pei YP, Wen Y, Yao XS (1993). Recent progress in studies on traditional Chinese medicines. Proc. 53^rd Int. Congr. Pharm. Sci., Tokyo, Sept.1993, p. B3-2.  

Elujoba AA, Ogunti EO, Soremekun RO, Iranloye TA (1994). The pharmacognosy amd dosage formulation of Cassia podocarapa leaf with reference to Senna. J. Pharmaceutical Sci& Pharm. Pract. 2(1&2):14-18.  

Femi-Oyewo MN, Elujoba AA, Alebiowu G (1994). Formulation studies on Datura metel Linn Powder II. Effect of binder variables on the granule and compact properties. Ibid, 50-55.  

Femi-Oyewo MN, Elujoba AA, Alebiowu G (1994). Formulation studies on Datura metel L. powder III: Effect of storage time on properties of the compacts. Ibid, 56-58.  

Gaulis J-F (ed) (1997). US $18.9 billion for R & D in 1997. Health Horizons no.31, Spring 1997.  

GSK (2003). Through: GlaxoSmithKline Worldwide website: http://www.gsk.com   

Hoffman FA, Leaders FE (Jnr.)(1996). Botanical (Herbal) Medicine in Health Care: A Review from a Regulatory Perspective. Ibid:23-25.  

IFPMA (2003). International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Position: Innovation Research in the Pharmaceutical Industry Through: IFPMA website:  

Ig-Izevbekhai, D.O., Akerele, J.O., Isah, A.O., Aigbavboa, S.O., Okhamafe, A.O. (1997). Pharmacokinetic Profiles of Ciprofloxacin and Ofloxacin Orally Co-administered With Either Diclofenac Potassium or Piroxicam in Healthy Human Volunteers. Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Pharmacy Practice 3(2): 39-43.  

Liu G-Q (1995). Chinese natural products and new drugs. Pharm. News 2(2):10-12.  

Mellanby I (ed) (1996). Alternative Medicine: The renewed interest in health care. Pharm. News 3(1):19-22, Jan/Feb.1996.  

Neumayer E, Bernath J (1993). Investigation of protected and endangered medicinal plants in natural reservation area near Budapest. Proc. 53^rd Int. Congr. Pharm. Sci., Tokyo, Sept.1993, p. B3-7.  

Okhamafe, A.O.(1990). Characterization of Pharmaceutical Film Coating Formulations by Thermal Methods. Thermal Analysis Reviews and Abstracts. 19(3): 1-4.  

Okhamafe AO, Aigbavboa SO, Ogana E, Akerele JO, Omogbai EKI, Ozolua R (2003). Pharmacopoeial, microbiological and toxological evaluation of cellulose extracted from maize cob. (Manuscript in preparation) 

Okhamafe, A.O., Akerele, J.O.(1989). Some Aspects of the Bioavailability of Orally Administered Ofloxacin in Healthy Human Volunteers. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 50: 83-86.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Akerele, J.O. (1998). Pharmacokinetics of Ciprofloxacin Following Oral Co-administration With Some Metallic Therapeutic Agents. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacy Practice. 4(1):1-6.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Akerele, J.O., Aigbavboa, S.O., Okei, E.A. (1996). Trial Rectal Formulations of Ofloxacin - Preliminary Pharmacokinetics in Healthy Human Volunteers. Journal of West African Pharmacy. 10(2):17-12  

Okhamafe, A.O., Akerele, J.O., Chukuka, C.S.(1991). Pharmacokinetic Interactions of Norfloxacin with some Metallic Medicinal Agents. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 68: 11-18.  

Okhamafe AO, Akinrinola FF, Ubuane-Inedegbo A (1988). Extracted celluloses from agricultural wastes as disintegrants – a preliminary assessment. Abstract #C6, Science Session, 61^st Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria Conference, Abuja, November 1988.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Amsden, B., Chu, W., Goosen, M.F.A. (1996). Modulation of protein release from chitosan-alginate microcapsules using the pH-sensitive polymer hydroxypropyl methylcellulose succinate. Journal of Microencapsulation. 13: 497-508.  

Okhamafe AO, Azubuike CPC (1993). Prospects for a low-cost diluent from agricultural wastes. Poster Presentation, 66^th Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria Conference, Ibadan, November, 1993.  

Okhamafe AO, Azubuike CPC (1994). Direct compression studies on low-cost cellulose derived from maize cob. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacy Practice. 2:26-29.  

Okhamafe AO, Ejike EN, Akinrinola FF, Ubuane-Inedegbo A (1995). Aspects of the tablet disintegrant properties of bagasse and maize cob cellulose.  Journal of West African Pharmacy. 9:8-13.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Goosen, M.F.A. (1999). Modulation of Membrane Permeability. In: Cell Encapsulation Technology and Therapeutics (Kuhtreiber, W.M., Lanza, R.P., Chick, W.L., Eds.), Birkhauser Boston, U.S.A., pp. 53-62.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Goosen, M.F.A. (1993). Control of Membrane Permeability in Microcapsules. In: Fundamentals of Animal Encapsulation and Mobilization (Goosen, M.F.A., Ed.), CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida. 1993, pp.55-78.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Igbinadolo, E.P.(1994). Effect of Drug/Polymer and Excipient/Polymer Interactions on the Moisture Permeation Characteristics of Some Aqueous-based Tablet Film Coatings. Nigerian Journal of Pharmacy. 25(2/3): 36-37.  

Okhamafe AO, Igboechi AC Ubrufih CE, Akinyemi BO (1989). Some disintegrant characteristics of celluloses extracted from groundnut shells and rice husks.  Abstract #C11, Science Session, 62^nd Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria Conference, Abeokuta, November 1989.  

Okhamafe AO, Igboechi AC, Obaseki TO (1990). Evaluation of the physicochemical characteristics of celluloses extracted from some agricultural wastes. Abstract #A6, National Workshop on Natural Products, Benin City, January 1990.  

Okhamafe AO, Igboechi, AC, Obaseki TO (1991). Celluloses extracted from groundnut shell and rice husk. 1: Preliminary physicochemical characterization. Pharmacy World Journal. 8:120-123.  

Okhamafe AO, Igboechi AC, Ubrufih CE, Akinyemi BO, Ighalo MO (1992). Celluloses extracted from groundnut shell and rice husk. 2: Disintegrant properties. Ibid. 9:11-16.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Ihaza, P.(1994). Effect of Acrylic Polymer Blending on the Moisture Permeability of Aqueous-based Vinyl and Cellulose Ether Film Coatings. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacy Practice. 2: 35-39.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Iwebor, H.U.(1987). Moisture Permeability Mechanisms of Some Aqueous-based Tablet Film Coatings Containing Soluble Additives. Proceedings, 4th International Conference on Phamaceutical Technology, Paris, June, 1986 and published in Die Pharmazie. 42: 611-613.  

Okhamafe AO, Omoshe VEO (1987). A preliminary report on the suitability of some agricultural wastes as tablet disintegrants. Nigerian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 3(1):42-47.  

Okhamafe, A.O., Roper, K., Goosen, M.F.A.(1992). Exploring Chitosan-Alginate Microcapsules as an Oral Delivery System for Bioactive Proteins. Proceedings of the 2nd National Scientitic Conference of NAAP, Zaria, Nigeria, October 1992, pp.143-150. 

Okhamafe, A.O., Roper, K., Goosen, M.F.A.(1991). Modification of Chitosan-Alginate Microcapsules For Oral Delivery of Vaccines - A Preliminary Report. Proceedings of the Bioencapsulation Research Group Workshop, Pointe Claire, Canada, March 1991, p.9.  

Okhamafe, A.O., York, P. (1984/85). The Glass Transition in Some Pigmented Polymer Systems Used for Tablet Coating. Journal of Macromolecular Science - Physics. B23: 373-382.  

Okhamafe, A.O., York, P.(1985). Interaction Phenomena in Some Aqueous-based Tablet Film Coating Polymer Systems. Pharmaceutical Research. 2(1): 19-23.  

Okhamafe, A.O., York, P.(1985). Characterization of Moisture Interactions in Some Aqueous-based Tablet Film Coating Formulations. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 37: 385-390.  

Okhamafe, A.O., York, P.(1987). Evaluation of Excipient/Polymer and Drug/Polymer Interactions in some Film Coating Systems by DSC. Presented at the 124th British Pharmaceutical Conference, Manchester, Sept., 1987 and published in the Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 39: (Suppl.) 87p.  

Okhamafe, A.O., York, P.(1987). Interaction Phenomena in Pharmaceutical Film Coatings and Methods. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 39: 1-21.  

Okhamafe, A.O., York, P.(1988). Studies of Interaction Phenomena in Aqueous-based Film Coatings Containing Soluble Additives Using Thermal Analysis Techniques. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 77: 435-444.  

Okhamafe, A.O., York, P.(1989). Thermal Characterization of Drug/Polymer and Excipient/Polymer Interactions in some Film Coating Formulations. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 41: 1-6.  

Okor RS, Iwu-Anyanwu U, Okhamafe AO (1992). Swellability of acrylate methacrylate – cellulose matrix systems and the effect on solute diffusion rates. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 44:749-750.  

Olukoya OAT. (1993) Challenges of local manufacture of oral liquid medicines. Proc. NIPRD Workshop on Strategies for local manufacture of oral liquid medicine.  

Polk, A.E., Amsden, B., Scarratt, D.J., Gonzal, J., Okhamafe, A.O., Goosen, M.F.A.(1994). Oral Delivery in Aquaculture: Controlled Release of Bioactive Agents from Microcapsules. Aquacultural Engineering 13:311-323.  

Roche (2003). Through: F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd website:  

Tanira MOM, Dib R, Goodwin CS, Wasfi IA, Bashir AK, Banna NR (1993). Antimicrobial activity of some United Arab Emirate plants Proc. 53^rd Int. Congr. Pharm. Sci., Tokyo, Sept.1993, p. B3-3.    

ABOUT THE INAUGURAL LECTURER

Augustine Ohisamaiye Okhamafe  was born on August 27, 1953 to Pa Jackson Ohidoa Okhamafe (now deceased) and Madam Ifejuola Usiobaifo.  

He had his primary education at L.A. School, Ukhun and St. Paul’s Catholic School, Irrua, in Esan West and Central LGAs, respectively, of Edo State from 1959-1965.  Between 1966 and 1970, he was at Annunciation College, Irrua for his secondary education at the end of which he emerged the best overall student in the West African School Certificate examination for that year.  He then proceeded to Government College, Ughelli, Delta State for Higher School Certificate education (1971-72).  Here, he won the John F. Kennedy Memorial Essay Competition at the school level in 1972. In 1973, he was admitted into the University of Benin to read Pharmacy, and graduated with a BPharm degree (1^st Class Honours) in 1978.  While an undergraduate at the University of Benin, he won, among other prizes, the Dean’s Prize for the best overall graduating student in the School of Pharmacy (1978) and the Provost’s Prize for the best overall graduating student in the College of Medical Sciences (1978). Following his internship training programme at the Specialist (now Central) Hospital, Benin City (1978-79) and National Youth Service at Bauchi (1979-80), he took up appointment as a Graduate Assistant in the Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology in his alma mater, University of Benin.  In March 1981, armed with a scholarship from the Federal Government, he proceeded on training leave to the United Kingdom where he obtained a PhD degree in Pharmaceutical Technology of the University of Bradford in 1984, specialising in the area of tablet polymeric film coatings.  

On his return to the University of Benin in 1984, he was immediately upgraded to the position of Lecturer I. Thereafter, he rapidly moved up the academic ladder until he became a full Professor in !993. He has served in several capacities both within and outside the university, including as member, Governing Council, University of Benin (1997-2001); member, Governing Council, Pharmacists Council of Nigeria (1999-2003); Dean, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin (1999-2003); Consultant/Core Facilitator to the National Programme on Immunisation for NIDs & SNIDs (1999-2000) and various pharmaceutical firms; member, Federal Government Expert Committee on National Pharmacopoeia; Chairman, University Admissions Board (1997-99); Chairman, UB Technologies Ltd; and Chairman, Information & Communication Technology Unit (ICTU, formerly PIU) in which capacity he has coordinated/is coordinating the establishment of information & communication technology projects at the University of Benin. Among these projects are VSAT facility; Email & full Internet services;  LAN cabling of buildings & campus area network infrastructure; computerisation of students records, staff records, Library & Bursary; university website; computerised certificate production; and OMR facility for grading of multiple-choice question answer scripts. At the Faculty of Pharmacy, he operationalised the Drug Manufacturing Unit in 1995.

Professor Okhamafe is a Fellow of both the Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria and the West African Postgraduate College of Pharmacy. He is also a member of the Bioencapsulation Research Group, the International Confederation for Thermal Analysis & Calorimetry, International Society for Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes & Immobilsation Biotechnology, as well as Chairman,  Pharmacotherapy Group. He is the recipient of the 1st ECOWAS Prize for Excellence in African Pharmacopoeia.  A devout Christian, he is the current Coordinator of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal, Benin Deanery.  

He is married to Mrs Florence O Okhamafe (nee Igenegbai) and they are blessed with three children: Ikhide, Enahoro and Omogbai.

This Inaugural Lecture was delivered at the University Main Auditorium at 4.00 pm on June 26, 2003